Medicinal Mushroom Research Articles

Chaga mushroom extract suppresses oral cancer cell growth via inhibition of energy metabolism

Oral cancer stands as a prevalent maligancy worldwide; however, its therapeutic potential is limited by undesired effects and complications. As a medicinal edible fungus, Chaga mushroom (Inonotus obliquus) exhibits anticancer effects across diverse cancers. Yet, the precise mechanisms underlying its efficacy remain unclear. We explored the detailed mechanisms underlying the anticancer action of Chaga mushroom extract in oral cancer cells (HSC-4). Following treatment with Chaga mushroom extracts, we analyzed cell viability, proliferation capacity, glycolysis, mitochondrial respiration, and apoptosis. Our findings revealed that the extract reduced cell viability and proliferation of HSC-4 cells while arresting their cell cycle via suppression of STAT3 activity. Regarding energy metabolism, Chaga mushroom extract inhibited glycolysis and mitochondrial membrane potential in HSC-4 cells, thereby triggering autophagy-mediated apoptotic cell death through activation of the p38 MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. Our results indicate that Chaga mushroom extract impedes oral cancer cell progression, by inhibiting cell cycle and proliferation, suppressing cancer cell energy metabolism, and promoting autophagy-mediated apoptotic cell death. These findings suggest that this extract is a promising supplementary medicine for the treatment of patients with oral cancer.

Selective impact of three homogenous polysaccharides with different structural characteristics from Grifola frondosa on human gut microbial composition and the structure-activity relationship

Natural polysaccharides interact with gut microbes to enhance human well-being. Grifola frondosa is a polysaccharides-rich edible and medicinal mushroom. The prebiotic potential of G. frondosa polysaccharides has been explored in recent years, however, the relationship between their various structural features and prebiotic activities is poorly understood. In this study, three homogenous polysaccharides GFP10, GFP21 and GFP22 having different molecular weights (Mw), monosaccharide compositions and glycosidic linkages were purified from G. frondosa, and their effects on intestinal microbial composition were compared. GFP10 was a fucomannogalactan with an Mw of 23.0 kDa, and it selectively inhibited Enterobacter, while GFP21 was a fucomannogalactoglucan with an Mw of 18.6 kDa, and it stimulated Catenibacterium. GFP22 was a 4.9 kDa mannoglucan that selectively inhibited Klebsiella and boosted Bifidobacterium, Catenibacterium and Phascolarctobacterium, and prominently promoted the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The selective modulation of gut microbiota by polysaccharides was structure-dependent. A relatively lower Mw and a high proportion of glycosidic linkages like T-Glcp, 1,3-Glcp, 1,3,6-Glcp and 1,4-Glcp might be more easily utilized to produce SCFAs and beneficial for the proliferation of Catenibacterium and Phascolarctobacterium. This research provided a valuable resource for further exploring the structure-activity relationship and prebiotic activity of G. frondosa polysaccharides.

Cordyceps militaris: A Comprehensive Study on Laboratory Cultivation and Anticancer Potential in Dalton's Ascites Lymphoma Tumor Model.

Cancer, a predominant cause of mortality, poses a formidable challenge in our pursuit of elevating life expectancy. Throughout history, individuals have sought natural remedies with minimal side effects as an appealing substitute for chemotherapeutic drugs. One such remedy is Cordyceps militaris, a renowned medicinal mushroom deeply entrenched in Asian ethnomedicine. Revered for its rejuvenating and curative attributes, it relied upon for ages. The mushroom's soaring demand outpaced natural availability, necessitating controlled laboratory cultivation as the core focus and exploring the potential of methanolic extracts from harvested Cordyceps militaris fruiting bodies against Dalton's Lymphoma Ascites (DLA) cells in vitro, with a specific emphasis on its anticancer traits. For cultivation, we employed a diverse range of rice substrates, among which bora rice showed promising growth of C. militaris fruiting bodies. To assess DLA cell cytotoxicity, several assays, including trypan blue exclusion assay, MTT assay, and LDH assay, were employed at different time points (24-96 h), which provided valuable insights on DLA cell viability and proliferation, shedding light on its therapeutic potential against cancer. Our studies unveiled that methanolic extract prompts apoptosis in DLA cells via AO/EB dual staining, manifesting consistent apoptosis indicators such as membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, nuclei fragmentation, and cellular shrinkage at 48-96 h of treatment. Furthermore, these striking repercussions of apoptosis were comprehended by an in silico approach having molecular docking simulation against antiapoptotic proteins like BCL-2, BCL-XL, MCL-1, BFL-1 HSP100. Methanolic C. militaris extracts exhibited cytotoxicity and apoptotic alterations in DLA cells.

Cordyceps militaris as an alternative source of food, nutrition and medicine

In 2020 Covid 19 outbreak wreaked havoc on the entire world. Through constant hard days, the pandemic has taught us how important it is to have better immunity in our body to avoid diseases like covid 19. In the present-day scenario, there are a handful of factors like pollution, adulterated food items, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, etc. which are slowly decreasing our immunity. In such a situation, Cordyceps militaris has emerged as a great solution. Cordyceps militaris is a medicinal mushroom, its products have been used as medicine in China for centuries, slowly, Cordyceps militaris is gaining fame in India and many other countries due to its exceptional immunomodulatory and other medicinal properties. Nutrition and immunity are two of the essential factors behind a healthy life. Cordyceps militaris imparts a positive effect on both. It is known for its nutritional and medicinal properties such as anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antiviral, effective in liver disorders, effective sexual disorder, cardiovascular diseases, antimalarial, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-osteoporotic, anti-arthritic, anti-diabetic anti-fungal, immunomodulatory, etc. Due to the aforesaid exceptional properties, it increases health benefits manifold.

Dehydrated mycelia (Cordyceps militaris, Grifola frondosa, Hericium erinaceus and Laricifomes officinalis) as Novel Foods: A comprehensive NMR study

Several medicinal mushrooms have been approved as European Novel Foods or have the potential to become Novel Foods. However, their chemical characterization is limited, being mainly focused on specific compounds.Here, the dehydrated mycelia (isolated from sporophores collected in Italy) of Grifola frondosa, Hericium erinaceus, recently defined as Novel Foods, and Cordyceps militaris and Laricifomes officinalis, with potential Novel Food use, were analyzed by NMR methodology to define their metabolite and nutritional profile. Amino acids and derivatives, sugars and polyols, organic acids, fatty acids, lipid polar moieties, nitrogen-containing compounds were identified and quantified in hydroalcoholic and organic extracts.C. militaris showed a high amount of glutamate, citrate and mannitol, also involved in mushroom taste, being the only species presenting tri-unsaturated fatty acids. L. officinalis was characterized by the highest amount of TAA and EAA, and the lowest sugars and polyols content. G. frondosa and H. erinaceus were characterized by high amounts of trehalose (13–14 % of dried weight).Each dehydrated mycelia potentially represents an innovative food matrix alone, for culinary, nutritional and nutraceutical needs, or mixed together to obtain new products. Moreover, these mycelia can be of interest as sources of isolated bioactive compounds for supplements with particular nutritional functions.

Phellintremulins A-C, antinociceptive sesquiterpenoids from the medicinal fungus Phellinus tremulae

Phellintremulin A (1), a rearranged sesquiterpenoid with an unprecedented bicyclic backbone, and two previously unreported illudane-type sesquiterpenoids, namely phellintremulin B (2) and phellintremulin C (3), together with two known analogues (±)‒4 and (±)‒5, were isolated from cultures of the medicinal fungus Phellinus tremulae. Their structures and absolute configurations were established by means of spectroscopic data and HRESIMS analyses, as well as ECD and NMR calculations. A plausible biogenesis for 1 was discussed. The electrophysiological experiments showed that phellintremulins (A‒C) can inhibit Nav current in DRG neuron cells at 10 μM, with percentage inhibitions of 23.2%, 49.3%, and 31.7%, respectively. The antinociceptive activities of phellintremulins (A‒C) were evaluated via the acetic acid-induced writhing test in mice at a dose of 3 mg/kg. They showed significant antinociceptive effects with percentages of inhibition of 43.8%, 54.4%, and 50.6%, respectively, and phellintremulin B and C expressed more potent analgesic effect than lidocaine.

Current Advances in the Functional Genes of Edible and Medicinal Fungi: Research Techniques, Functional Analysis, and Prospects

Functional genes encode various biological functions required for the life activities of organisms. By analyzing the functional genes of edible and medicinal fungi, varieties of edible and medicinal fungi can be improved to enhance their agronomic traits, growth rates, and ability to withstand adversity, thereby increasing yield and quality and promoting industrial development. With the rapid development of functional gene research technology and the publication of many whole-genome sequences of edible and medicinal fungi, genes related to important biological traits have been mined, located, and functionally analyzed. This paper summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of different functional gene research techniques and application examples for edible and medicinal fungi; systematically reviews the research progress of functional genes of edible and medicinal fungi in biological processes such as mating type, mycelium and fruit growth and development, substrate utilization and nutrient transport, environmental response, and the synthesis and regulation of important active substances; and proposes future research directions for functional gene research for edible and medicinal fungi. The overall aim of this study was to provide a valuable reference for further promoting the molecular breeding of edible and medicinal fungi with high yield and quality and to promote the wide application of edible and medicinal fungi products in food, medicine, and industry.

Anti-Photodamage Effect of Agaricus blazei Murill Polysaccharide on UVB-Damaged HaCaT Cells.

UVB radiation is known to induce photodamage to the skin, disrupt the skin barrier, elicit cutaneous inflammation, and accelerate the aging process. Agaricus blazei Murill (ABM) is an edible medicinal and nutritional fungus. One of its constituents, Agaricus blazei Murill polysaccharide (ABP), has been reported to exhibit antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and immunomodulatory effects, which suggests potential effects that protect against photodamage. In this study, a UVB-induced photodamage HaCaT model was established to investigate the potential reparative effects of ABP and its two constituents (A1 and A2). Firstly, two purified polysaccharides, A1 and A2, were obtained by DEAE-52 cellulose column chromatography, and their physical properties and chemical structures were studied. A1 and A2 exhibited a network-like microstructure, with molecular weights of 1.5 × 104 Da and 6.5 × 104 Da, respectively. The effects of A1 and A2 on cell proliferation, the mitochondrial membrane potential, and inflammatory factors were also explored. The results show that A1 and A2 significantly promoted cell proliferation, enhanced the mitochondrial membrane potential, suppressed the expression of inflammatory factors interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-8 (IL-8), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and increased the relative content of filaggrin (FLG) and aquaporin-3 (AQP3). The down-regulated JAK-STAT signaling pathway was found to play a role in the response to photodamage. These findings underscore the potential of ABP to ameliorate UVB-induced skin damage.

Comprehensive untargeted lipidomics study of black morel (Morchella sextelata) at different growth stages

The black morel (Morchella sextelata) is a valuable edible and medicinal mushroom appreciated worldwide. Here, lipidomic profiles and lipid dynamic changes during the growth of M. sexletata were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. 203 lipid molecules, including four categories and fourteen subclasses, were identified in mature fruiting bodies, with triacylglycerol being the most abundant (37.00 %). Fatty acid composition analysis revealed that linoleic acid was the major fatty acid among the free fatty acids, glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids. The relative concentration of lipids in M. sextelata changed significantly during its growth, from which 12 and 29 differential lipid molecules were screened out, respectively. Pathway analysis based on these differential lipids showed that glycerophospholipid metabolism was the major pathway involved in the growth of M. sextelata. Our study provides a comprehensive understanding of the lipids in M. sextelata and will facilitate the development and utilization of M. sextelata.

Ganonorsterone A, a norsteroid from the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lingzhi

Phytochemical investigation on the fruiting bodies of the medicinal fungus Ganoderma lingzhi led to the isolation of a new norsteroid, namely ganonorsterone A (1), together with one known steroid, cyathisterol (2). The structure and absolute configuration of compound 1 were assigned by extensive analysis of MS, NMR data, and quantum-chemical calculations including electronic circular dichroism (ECD) and calculated 13C NMR-DP4+ analysis. Bioassay results showed that compound 1 displayed moderate inhibition on NO production in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

Network Pharmacology Analysis of Liquid-Cultured Armillaria ostoyae Mycelial Metabolites and Their Molecular Mechanism of Action against Gastric Cancer.

Armillaria sp. are traditional edible medicinal mushrooms with various health functions; however, the relationship between their composition and efficacy has not yet been determined. Here, the ethanol extract of liquid-cultured Armillaria ostoyae mycelia (AOME), a pure wild Armillaria sp. strain, was analyzed using UHPLC-QTOF/MS, network pharmacology, and molecular docking techniques. The obtained extract affects various metabolic pathways, such as JAK/STAT and PI3K/AKT. The extract also contains important compounds such as 4-(dimethylamino)-N-[7-(hydroxyamino)-7-oxoheptyl] benzamide, isoliquiritigenin, and 7-hydroxycoumarin. Moreover, the extract targets key proteins, including EGFR, SCR, and IL6, to suppress the progression of gastric cancer, thereby synergistically inhibiting cancer development. The molecular docking analyses indicated that the main compounds stably bind to the target proteins. The final cell culture experimental data showed that the ethanol extract inhibited MGC-803 gastric cancer cells. In summary, our research revealed the beneficial components of AOME for treating gastric cancer and its associated molecular pathways. However, further research is needed to confirm its effectiveness and safety in gastric cancer patients.

Structural clarification of mannoglucan GSBP-2 from Ganoderma sinense and its effects on triple-negative breast cancer migration and invasion

Ganoderma sinense, known as Lingzhi in China, is a medicinal fungus with anti-tumor properties. Herein, crude polysaccharides (GSB) extracted from G. sinense fruiting bodies were used to selectively inhibit triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells. GSBP-2 was purified from GSB, with a molecular weight of 11.5 kDa and a composition of α-l-Fucp-(1→, β-d-Glcp-(1→, β-d-GlcpA-(1→, →3)-β-d-Glcp-(1→, →3)-β-d-GlcpA-(1→, →4)-α-d-Galp-(1→, →6)-β-d-Manp-(1→, and →3,6)-β-d-Glcp-(1 → at a ratio of 1.0:6.3:1.7:5.5:1.5:4.3:8.0:7.9. The anti-MDA-MB-231 cell activity of GSBP-2 was determined by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium, colony formation, scratch wound healing, and transwell migration assays. The results showed that GSBP-2 could selectively inhibit the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells through the regulation of genes targeting epithelial–mesenchymal transition (i.e., Snail1, ZEB1, VIM, CDH1, CDH2, and MMP9) in the MDA-MB-231 cells. Furthermore, Western blotting results indicated that GSBP-2 could restrict epithelial–mesenchymal transition by increasing E-cadherin and decreasing N-cadherin expression through the PI3K/Akt pathway. GSBP-2 also suppressed the angiogenesis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells. In conclusion, GSBP-2 could inhibit the proliferation, migration, and invasion of MDA-MB-231 cells and showed significant anti-angiogenic ability. These findings indicate that GSBP-2 is a promising therapeutic adjuvant for TNBC.

How lignocellulose degradation can promote the quality and function of dietary fiber from bamboo shoot residue by Inonotus obliquus fermentation

Lignocellulose constitutes the primary component of dietary fiber. We assessed how fermenting bamboo shoot residue with the medicinal white-rot fungus Inonotus obliquus affected the yield, composition, and functional attributes of dietary fiber by altering bamboo shoot residue lignocellulose's spatial structure and composition. I. obliquus secretes lignocellulolytic enzymes, which effectively enhance the degradation of holocellulose and lignin by 87.8% and 25.5%, respectively. Fermentation led to a more porous structure and reduced crystallinity. The yield of soluble dietary fiber increased from 5.1 g/100 g raw BSR to 7.1 g/100 g 9-day-fermented bamboo shoot residue. The total soluble sugar content of dietary fiber significantly increased from 9.2% to 13.8%, which improved the hydration, oil holding capacity, in vitro cholesterol, sodium cholate, and nitrite adsorption properties of dietary fiber from bamboo shoot residue. These findings confirm that I. obliquus biotransformation is promising for enhancing dietary fiber yield and quality.

Discovery and mechanism of anti-hypertensive effect of a novel tripeptide (SYP) from medicinal fungus Ganoderma lingzhi

Discovery and mechanism of anti-hypertensive effect of a novel tripeptide (SYP) from medicinal fungus Ganoderma lingzhi

Quality Evaluation, health risk Assessment, and geographic origin tracing of Ophiocordyceps sinensis through mineral element analysis

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (OS) is a unique and precious medicinal fungus endemic to the Tibetan Plateau, growing underground for the majority of its lifecycle. The mineral composition of OS is a distinctive feature, yet there is currently a lack of comprehensive mineral profiles. The concerns regarding excessive heavy metals and associated health risks significantly impact the development of the OS industry. Furthermore, OS samples from various production areas exhibit distinct qualities, resulting in significant price differences. Mineral profiles hold great potential for origin tracing. Consequently, there is an urgent need for quality evaluation, health risk assessment, and geographic origin tracing of OS by mineral element analysis. Here, 96 OS samples were collected from the representative producing areas in China to investigate their mineral profiles by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Potassium (K) was found to be the most abundant mineral in the OS samples, with a mean content of 10.73 g/kg. High levels of phosphor (P), sulfur (S) and magnesium (Mg) were also detected with concentrations exceeding 1 g/kg. The mean concentrations of total arsenic in all OS samples were determined to be 8.33 mg/kg. The OS from Nagqu exhibited a relatively high quality with lower levels of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and arsenic. Health risk assessment based on the total target hazard quotient (THQ) value of heavy metals of Zn, Mn, Fe, copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), Pb and Cd indicated that consumption of OS from China did not pose an obvious risk to human health at the ingestion rate declared by the Chinese Pharmacopeia. Finally, three orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) models were constructed using 75 samples to trace the geographic origins. These models successfully authenticated OS samples from six producing areas and confirmed by 21 blind test samples with 90.48 % accuracy. These results affirmed that OS from different regions possessed distinct metal profiles, which could be utilized to authenticate the geographic origins of O. sinensis.

Effectiveness of Asthmagan administration in the complex therapy of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Ganoderma is a medicinal mushroom that has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. It contains a wide range of biologically active therapeutic molecules that have an anti‑inflammatory, immunomodulatory effect and contribute to the normalization of respiratory tract function.
 Objective — to evaluate the effectiveness of the Asthmagan drug in the complex therapy of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
 Materials and methods. Examinations involved 40 hospitalized patients with a verified diagnosis of COPD, aged 18 to 70 years. In addition to standard examinations, leukotriene B4 (LTB4) was determined. Asthmagan capsules were added to the scheme of complex inpatient and outpatient treatment.
 Results. On admission, patients complained of breathlessness and cough with wheezing and sputum production. Blood tests showed leukocytosis, elevated ESR, hyperfibrinogenemia, and increased C‑reactive protein levels. According to the results of the correlation analysis, positive correlations were found between pro‑inflammatory markers and negative correlations between LTB4 and external respiration indicators. A tendency to LTB4 reduction was noted. After the treatment, positive dynamics were observed in all patients, and in the group of patients with Asthmagan inclusion, there was a significant improvement in external respiration function and all components of the quality of life according to the St. George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ). Tolerability of Asthmagan was positive, side effects were not recorded.
 Conclusions. During the inpatient treatment of patients with COPD with the inclusion of the drug Asthmagan, regression of complaints and clinical manifestations of COPD, a decrease in the level of pro‑inflammatory markers and a tendency to LTB4 levels reduction were noted. Improvement in the quality of life along with a significant increase in the external respiration indicators testified the increase in the effectiveness of COPD treatment by including Asthmagan in the complex treatment.
  

Structural Characterization and Immunological Activity of Polysaccharide Degradation Products from Phlebopus portentosus

Phlebopus portentosus is an edible and medicinal mushroom with a delicious taste and high nutritional value. The oligosaccharides derived from P. portentosus may be the material basis for its biological activity. The degradation of polysaccharide and the maintenance of its activity after degradation are key steps in related research. This study applied an acid degradation method to prepare P. portentosus refined polysaccharide (PPRP) with a smaller molecular weight, and the optimal hydrolysis conditions determined were a temperature of 80 °C, an acid concentration of 2 mol/L, and a hydrolysis time of 2 h. The polysaccharide structure and immune activity were then further investigated. The results showed that the PPRP comprised two fractions with approximate weights of 61,600 Da and 5500 Da. The monosaccharide composition of PPRP was mannose, rhamnose, glucose, and galactose, with a molar ratio of 1.00: 22.24: 2.93: 1.03. The major functional groups included O-H, C-H, C-O, and C-O-C. The glycosidic bond types were mainly α- and β-glycosidic bonds. Cell experiments demonstrated that PPRP could significantly increase the proliferation of macrophages and enhance the cytotoxicity of NK cells. Moreover, PPRP also significantly promoted the proliferation of B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, especially at a concentration of 200 μg/mL. This study furnishes scientific evidence underlining the significant potential of PPRP in immune activity, thereby serving as a material basis and scientific bedrock for further investigations into the mechanism of P. portentosus oligosaccharide activity.

Effects of Garnoderma lucidum on Acetaminophen-Induced Liver Injury in Wistar Rats

Introduction: Ganoderma lucidum is considered to be a medicinal mushroom, widely used to prevent or treat different types of diseases including cancer, cardiovascular disease and hepatic dysfunction. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Ganoderma lucidum on acetaminophen-induced liver injury in wistar rats. Methods: Forty (40) male wistar rats were used for this study. Hepatoxicity was induced by oral administration of acetaminophenn (3000 mg/kg of body weight) for the last 21 consecutive days of the dietary of regimen Ganoderma lucidum. These rats were divided into eight cages each containing Five rats. Control Group 1 fed on feed and water only throughout the study, Group 2 received acetaminophen only, Group 3 received Acetaminophen + Standard drug (silymarin), Group 4 received Acetaminophen +100 mg/kg body weight of Ganoderma lucium extract, Group 5 received Acetaminophen + 200 mg/kg body weight of Ganoderma lucidum extract, Group 6 received Acetaminophen + 300 mg/kg body weight of Ganoderma lucidum extract , Group 7 received 100 mg/kg of Ganoderma lucidum extract, Group 8 received Acetaminophen+Standard Drug (silymarin) + 300 mg/kg body weight of Ganderma lucidum extract. Blood samples was collected via cardiac puncture within 24 hours of Sacrifice. The extent of the liver injury was determined by assessing the plasma levels of Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha (TNF-α), Alpha Feto protein, Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), Aspartate aminotransferase (AST), Alkaline phosphatase (ALP), Total bilirubin (TB), Conjugated bilirubin (CB), Unconjugated Bilirubin (UB), Albumin, Gamma Glutamyl Transaminase (GGT) and total protein (TP) using spectrophotometric method and ELISA as appropriate. Results: Oral administration of Acetaminophen significantly increased the plasma levels of the parameters accessed, suggesting severe liver damage in the rats. However, the treatment of Ganoderma lucidum decreased these hepatotoxic indices at a significant level of P <0.01 for TNF-α, AFP, ALT, AST, UB, TB, GGT and ALP, while Albumin and Conjugated Bilirubin were significantly decreased at a level of (P<0.05) in the Ganoderma lucidum + Acetaminophen-administered group compared to those of the control group. Conclusion: Thus, the results of the present investigation demonstrates that the Ganoderma lucidum provides significant hepatoprotective activity against acetaminophen-induced liver injury in wistar rats.

Cultivation and Nutrient Compositions of Medicinal Mushroom, Hericium erinaceus in Thailand

Hericium erinaceus, commonly known as “Lion’s Mane,” is widely edible, used for medicinal purposes, and has a long history of cultivation in China and Japan since 1990s. In this study, four strains of Hericium erinaceus (MFLUCC 21-0018, MFLCC 21-0019, MFLUCC 21-0020, and MFLUCC 21-0021) were grown for cultivation and proximate analysis. The mushroom was cultivated on three different substrate treatments, designed using a completely randomized design (CRD), harvested as fresh fruiting bodies, dried at 40–45 °C, and the total yield calculated. We pulverized the dried fruiting body for proximate composition and analyzed it according to standard procedures. The result showed that all H. erinaceus strains in three different substrate treatments produced mature fresh fruiting bodies when the temperature was 18–24 °C, while the second substrate treatment under conditions of the sawdust bag content 77% of para rubber sawdust, 15% of red sorghum, 3% of rice bran, 2% of yeast powder, 1% of lime (CaO), 1% of gypsum (CaSO4 • 2H2O), and 1% of molasses produced a high yield of 85.79–123.7 grams/bag. Proximate analysis of the dried mushroom powder showed high levels of protein content between 15.30% and 19.56%. The cultivation of H. erinaceus in Thailand is a significant achievement, as this type of mushroom is generally valued for its nutritional and therapeutic properties.

First Report of White Mucus Disease Caused by Fuligo gyrosa on Agrocybe chaxingu in China.

Agrocybe chaxingu is an edible and medicinal mushroom widely cultivated in China (Liu et al. 2021). Agrocybe chaxingu is extremely well-liked for the unique flavor and nutritional value. In May 2021, a serious white mucus disease was observed in the farms of A. chaxingu in the Ganxian district of Ganzhou City, Jiangxi Province, China, with an approximate disease incidence of 20%. In the years of 2022 and 2023, the same white mucus disease on A. chaxingu was observed in the farms in Nanchang City, Jiujiang City and Guangchang County, Jiangxi Province, China. The disease generally occurs on the media, stipe or pileus of A. chaxingu under condition of high humidity. The plasmodial slime molds migrated from the surface of culture media (78% hardwood sawdust, 15% wheat bran, 5% tea seed shell, 1% lime, and 1% gypsum) to the base of fruiting bodies, stipes and finally to pilei, showing as moist, sticky, and white reticulated structures. The infected fruiting bodies of A. chaxingu were completely covered by reticulated plasmodia, displaying a white or pale-yellow color. This resulted in the growth cessation, wilting and eventual death of fruiting body. Microscopic observation found that the plasmodia of slime mold enveloped the hyphae of A. chaxingu, resulting in the fragmentation of the hyphae. The disease can spread quickly, resulting in a 30% reduction in production. Slime mold cultures were isolated by transferring diseased fruiting bodies of A. chaxingu onto oat-agar medium (2% agar and 1% oatmeal) at 25 ℃. The isolates can be obtained after being subcultured for two to three generations. Purified plasmodia were placed on the semi-defined medium (1% tryptone, 1% glucose, 0.15% yeast extract, chick embryo extract and a balanced salt solution) to confirm the absence of bacteria (Daniel et al. 1964) and thus obtained the pure culture. Specimen of the voucher has been deposited in the Institute of Agricultural Applied Microbiology, Jiangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences as number IAAM-W0002. The vegetative plasmodia have a large and well-developed scalloped structure that were white or milky white in colour. The white plasmodium became opaque pale yellow when exposed to light before fruiting. The veins merged and thickened. Fruiting bodies can be formed on the lid or side of the Petri dish under light condition. The fruiting bodies formed papillae with irregular shape, and then the color changed from translucent yellow to greyish black. Spores were usually spherical or subglobose, free, greyish brown in mass, purplish brown, 7-12 μm in diameter under light microscopy. These morphological characteristics were found to be consistent with those of Fuligo gyrosa (Synonym: Physarum gyrosum) (Kim et al. 2009; Shi et al. 2005; Jahn 1902). The identity of the isolates was further confirmed by sequence analysis of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene with primer SMNUR101/NS4 (Rusk et al. 1995; White et al. 1990). Using BLASTn searches, the sequence of 18S rRNA gene (GenBank accession number OR186216) matched the sequence of F. gyrosa (GenBank accession number LC744593) with the identity of 99.91% and coverage of 97%. A phylogenetic tree based on the 18S rRNA gene also demonstrated that the slime mold clustered with F. gyrosa. Over ten isolates have been obtained from the diseased A. chaxingu samples in different factories and identified as F. gyrosa. To test the pathogenicity of F. gyrosa, five healthy young fruiting bodies (three to five days of primordium) of A. chaxingu cultivated in mushroom-growing room were gently inoculated by a 12 mm diameter oat-agar medium with plasmodia at 24 ± 2 ℃ and then were kept with relative humidity of 90%-95%. Five fruiting bodies inoculated with a 12 mm oat-agar medium served as controls. After 5 days, white mucus characteristics and three fifths of death symptoms were observed on the fruiting bodies inoculated with the plasmodia, while the controls remained asymptomatic. The slime mold on the inoculated fruiting bodies was morphologically identical to F. gyrosa that was observed on the initial diseased fruiting bodies. It was also observed the envelopment A. chaxingu hyphae by the plasmodia of slime mold and fragmentation of the hyphae, and the fragmentation was not observed in the controls. Reisolations were prepared from the inoculated fruiting bodies and confirmed to be F. gyrosa based on morphological characteristics and 18S rRNA sequence, thus fulfilling Koch's postulates. Fuligo gyrosa has been reported to cause severe disease in oriental melon in Korea (Kim et al. 2009). This is the first report of F. gyrosa causing white mucus disease in cultivated A. chaxingu. The findings will provide important information on prevention and control of the disease, and be helpful for the development of A. chaxingu industry.